Things+to+Consider

From Research: Historical Reflection on Learning Theories and Instructional Design: Looks at the gradual shifting from total behaviorist underpinnings to cognitive ones, then to an integrative approach to ID to suit particular leaning expectations and contexts and learner needs. Sections on Elaboration Theory and a new one, called, Linking Theory are included. Tennyson tries to show how the areas of Instructional Theory, Learning Theory, and Instructional Design are related:


 * From February 1st Class:**

"Some of the theories deal with macro-level instruction; some deal with micro-level instruction. You will need to know which you are using for your model (or perhaps you will address both)."

We are directed to look at the text "Classic Writings on Instructional Technology" - and refer to Hannafin's description of macro and micro-level environments on page 105 - a summary of both is below:


 * Macro-Level Environments**
 * "emphasize comprehensive treatment among interrelated information, concepts, and activities"
 * "attempt to provide vehicles for broadening the context for the lesson while enabling students to pursue interests or needs beyond the parameters typically provided in isolated lessons"


 * Micro-Level Environments**
 * "focus on a relatively discrete domain and permit detailed examinations and explorations between interrelated concepts"
 * "not integrated explicitly with a larger range of concepts, they often represent a synthesis of several skills and concepts"

"Instructional design can be seen in terms of either macro-design procedures which provide overall direction to a design project (typically using instructional systems design principles) or micro-design that involves the design of lessons and instructional strategies which constitute those lessons" ( **Chapter 10** (Pages 255 -- 281) **The Future Role of Robert M. Gagné in Instructional Design; Rita C. Richey, p. 255)**.

The above doesn't quite explain it for me, so a bit more: "To address the issue of individual differences in learning, two levels of instructional decisions should be involved. The existing literature suggests making 'macro' and 'micro' level instructional decisions was considered a critical task in designing any type of instruction associated with traditional and blended learning environments (Hannafin, Land, & Oliver, 1999; Hirumi, 2002). An example of the macro level instructional decision is the identification of instructional strategies for blended instruction and accommodating individual learning differences to decide blending mix among different delivery methods. An example of the micro level decisions are examining the types and roles of interactions and learning activities and assessing the effect of learner characteristics such as demographic information, learning styles/preferences, and learners' learning motivation prior to attending blended instruction courses" (http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_7100/is_4_12/ai_n42367600/pg_9/) (article: **Learner and instructional factors influencing learning outcomes within a blended learning environment - Educational Technology & Society, October 2009. Doo Hun Lim, & Michael Lane Morris)**

Hannafin, M., Land, S., & Oliver, K. (1999). Online learning environments: Foundations, methods, and models. In C. M. Reigeuluth (Ed.), Instructional design theories and models, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 115-140.

Hirumi, A. (2002). A framework for analyzing, designing, and sequencing planned e-learning interactions. The Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 3 (2), 141-160.

still looking - will try to find and link the above 2 articles.

From 5th class:
__**//Cognitive Load//**__ Last session you were asked to read **//Sweller, J. (2006). Discussion of 'emerging topics in cognitive load research: Using learner and information characteristics in the design of powerful learning environments'. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 20(3), 353-357. Available online through U of C library.//** Some examples from your own experience of each of the three types: Some examples from your own experience of: What is the learning theory upon which this theory originates? What does this mean for ill-structured domains -- i.e., when a worked example doesn't really reflect anything that the student will see again? What will this mean for your own instruction?
 * intrinsic?
 * extraneous?
 * germane?
 * modality effect
 * split attention effect
 * worked examples
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">expertise Reversal effects

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Last session you were asked to read //**Spiro, R.J., Collins, B.P., Thota, J.J. & Feltovich, P.J. (2004). Cognitive Flexibility Theory: Hypermedia for Complex Learning, Adaptive Knowledge Application, and Experience Acceleration Available at [|https://www.msu.edu/~colli239/researchdawson.htm]**// <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">To what learning theory would this be related? <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">How do you reconcile Cognitive Load Theory (where instructional design can chunk and mediate schema development ) with Cognitive Flexibility Theory (where schema are too limited, simplification at early stages can interfere with later learning, etc.)? <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">For either of these theories, what are the implications for your own instruction? Are there things that you do in your own instruction that you would now change?
 * __//Also: Cognitive Flexibility://__**

__//**<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Also: Distributed Cognition: **//__ <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Last session you were asked to read Pea, R.D. (1993). . In G. Salomon (Ed.) Distributed Cognitions: Psychological and Educational Considerations, 47-87. Available online from http://stanford.academia.edu/RoyPea/Papers/109081/Practices_of_distributed_intelligence_and_designs_for_education. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Sandra Law is a PhD student study Distributed Cognition. She will be a guest lecturer today for this topic. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Here is a link to her [|Distributed Cognition session].

From 4th Class:
<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">We've spent a good deal of time looking at learning theory and its impact on instruction. Now it's time to move on to the "instructional side" of the course. <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">"In his presidential address to the American Psychological Association, John Dewey (1900) called for the development of a "linking science" between learning theory and educational practice. Ralph Tyler has also stated the need for such a body of knowledge. He had described it as playing a sort of middleman role....Instructional design is this linking science -- a body of knowledge that prescribes instructional actions to optimize instructional outcomes, such as achievement and effect." <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">-- Reigeluth, C. (1983). Instructional Design Theories and Models, An Overview of Their Current Status. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">There has been an explosion of models as researchers struggle to understand and define this linking science. The reading for this session, Dr. Merrill's paper (below) introduces some essential questions for the field: <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">"Are all of these design theories and models merely alternative ways to approach design? Do all of these design theories and models have equal value? Do these design theories and models have fundamental underlying principles in common? If so, what are these underlying first principles?" <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The next chunk of the course will allow you to examine a number of instructional design theories, helping you to build and refine your mental model of the field.

**From 3rd class:**
<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">"The key contrast of constructivism and objectivism deals with the view of each position on reality. Objectivism believes there is one shared reality and only one way to structure the world. By contrast, constructivism says there are many perspectives or ways to structure reality since reality is the outcome of the construction process. <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Objectivists seek to find order while constructivists work to construct order. <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Objectivists believe meaning exists separately or independently from the individual while constructivists believe meaning is imposed by the individual. <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Objectivists say experience has no role in structuring the world while constructivists believe experience is the index of meaning." <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">-- Duffy, T. & Jonassen. D. H. (1991). Constructivism: New Implications for Instructional Technology. Educational Technology, 31(5). <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> "Traditionally, goals and objectives are set by curriculum developers and instructional designers. Instructional strategies are selected by the designer that are expected to teach the objectives to the student . Both content and strategy are therefore imposed on the student from the outside. Under constructivism, however, the students select or develop their own learning strategies and often their own goals and objectives" <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">-- Winn, W. (1991).The assumptions of constructivism and instructional design. Educational Technology, 38-40. <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Objectivism and Constructivism present two different perspectives of reality.

Self Quiz on Objectivism -Constructivism:

<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Because the learner and learning together are the whole "point" behind instruction, we will be taking a look at the learning theories as a starting point. The following excerpt from **Reigeluth** introduces the relationship between learning theory and instructional design. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">"Learning theories are often confused with instructional design theories. But learning theories are descriptive. They describe how learning occurs. For example, one kind of learning theory, called schema theory, proposes that new knowledge is acquired by accretion into an existing schema, by tuning that schema when minor inconsistencies emerge, and by restructuring that schema when major inconsistencies arise (Rummelhart & Norman, 1978). But how does that understanding help me to teach, say, English grammar? If I'm creative and have a lot of time, I may be able to develop instructional methods that facilitate accretion, tuning, and restructuring of schemata. But it is very difficult, and I may completely miss the mark. If I'm successful in identifying useful methods for particular situations, I've created an instructional-design theory. It may only apply to a very narrow slice of situations, but those methods and situations comprise an instructional-design theory.
 * <span style="color: #252525; font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 20px;">From 2nd class: **

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> In contrast to learning theories, instructional-design theories are more directly and easily applied to educational problems, for they describe specific events outside of the learner that facilitate learning (i.e., methods of instruction), rather than describing what goes on inside a learner's head when learning occurs. The same kind of analysis applies to theories of human development. They are descriptive and apply only indirectly to teaching (fostering learning and development of all sorts). <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Nevertheless, that does not mean that theories of learning and human development are not useful to educators. As Winn (1997) put it, "any successful practitioner or researcher needs to be thoroughly versed in at least the immediately underlying discipline to his or her own. A good instructional designer knows [theories of learning and human development]" (p. 37). Indeed, learning and developmental theories are useful for understanding why an instructional-design theory works, and, in areas where no instructional-design theories exist, they can help an educator to invent new methods or select known instructional methods that might work. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">So, instructional-design theories and theories of learning and human development are both important, and, like a house and its foundation, they are closely related." <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">-- above excerpt from Reigeluth, C. (Ed.) (1999). Instructional Design Theories and Models: Volume II. Mahway, New jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. pp 12-13.